Modernism 现代主义.doc

The beginnings of modernism in France[edit] Historians, and writers in different disciplines, have suggested various dates as starting points for modernism. HistorianWilliam Everdell, for example, has argued that Modernism began in the 1870s, when metaphorical (or ontological) continuity began to yield to the discrete with mathematician?Richard Dedekinds (1831–1916)?Dedekind cut, and?Ludwig Boltzmanns (1844–1906)?statistical thermodynamics.[27]?Everdell also thinks Modernism in painting began in 1885–86 with?SeuratsDivisionism, the dots used to paint A Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte. On the other hand visual art critic?Clement Greenberg?called?Immanuel Kant?(1724–1804) the first real Modernist,[28]?though he also wrote, What can be safely called Modernism emerged in the middle of the last century—and rather locally, in France, with?Baudelaire?in literature and?Manet?in painting, and perhaps with?Flaubert, too, in prose fiction. (It was a while later, and not so locally, that Modernism appeared in?music?and?architecture).[29]?The poet Baudelaires?Les Fleurs du mal?(The Flowers of Evil), and Flauberts novel?Madame Bovary?were both published in 1857. In the arts and letters, two important approaches developed separately in France. The first was?impressionism, a school of painting that initially focused on work done, not in studios, but outdoors (en plein air). Impressionist paintings demonstrated that human beings do not see objects, but instead see light itself. The school gathered adherents despite internal divisions among its leading practitioners, and became increasingly influential. Initially rejected from the most important commercial show of the time, the government-sponsored?Paris Salon, the?Impressionists?organized yearly group exhibitions in commercial venues during the 1870s and 1880s, timing them to coincide with the official Salon. A significant event of 1863 was the?Salon des Refusés, created by?Emperor Napoleon?III?to display all of th